2018 · Review
Kaelen et al. 2018 - music as the hidden therapist
The hidden therapist: evidence for a central role of music in psychedelic therapy
Medically reviewed by: Pending medical review(draft)Last updated: June 4, 2026Evidence: Kaelen M et al.. Psychopharmacology, 2018.
Population
Synthesis of psychedelic-assisted therapy literature
Intervention
Music as set-and-setting variable
Comparator
n/a
Primary outcome
Subjective and therapeutic correlates
Key findings
- Music consistently rated among the most influential session factors
- Music-evoked emotion correlates with therapeutic outcome
- Argues for music as an active therapeutic ingredient, not background
Limitations
- Largely psilocybin and MDMA literature
- Limited direct ketamine data
Educational use only. The content on this page is provided for general educational purposes and does not constitute medical advice, diagnosis, or treatment. Ketamine and related therapies carry risks and are appropriate only under qualified medical supervision. Always consult a licensed healthcare professional about your individual situation. Information may change as research evolves.